Experimental evidence of large changes in terrestrial chlorine cycling following altered tree species composition.

Organochlorine molecules (Clorg) are surprisingly abundant in soils and frequently exceed chloride (Cl(-)) levels. Despite the widespread abundance of Clorg and the common ability of microorganisms to produce Clorg, we lack fundamental knowledge about how overall chlorine cycling is regulated in forested ecosystems. Here we present data from a long-term reforestation experiment where native forest was cleared and replaced with five different tree species. Our results show that the abundance and residence times of Cl(-) and Clorg after 30 years were highly dependent on which tree species were planted on the nearby plots. Average Cl(-) and Clorg content in soil humus were higher, at experimental plots with coniferous trees than in those with deciduous trees. Plots with Norway spruce had the highest net accumulation of Cl(-) and Clorg over the experiment period, and showed a 10 and 4 times higher Cl(-) and Clorg storage (kg ha(-1)) in the biomass, respectively, and 7 and 9 times higher storage of Cl(-) and Clorg in the soil humus layer, compared to plots with oak. The results can explain why local soil chlorine levels are frequently independent of atmospheric deposition, and provide opportunities for improved modeling of chlorine distribution and cycling in terrestrial ecosystems.

Monitoring impacts of air pollution: PIXE analysis and histopathological modalities in evaluating relative risks of elemental contamination.

Environmental toxicants invariably affect all biological organisms resulting to sufferings ranging from subclinical to debilitating clinical conditions. This novel research aimed to determine the toxic burdens of increased environmental elements in some vital organs/tissues of the wild animals (starling, owl, crow and pigeon), exposed to air polluted environment were assessed using particle induced X-ray emission and histopathological approaches. The presence of significantly elevated amounts of elemental toxicants namely: Aluminum (Al), Chlorine (Cl), Iron (Fe), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), Manganese (Mn), Silicon (Si) and Vanadium (V) from the skin, muscle, lungs, liver and kidney of sampled animals were in concurrence with the observed histopathological changes. The skin of sampled starling, owl, pigeon and crow spotlighted highly significant increase (P < 0.001) in Al, Cl, Mg and Si. Muscle samples with myodegenerative lesions and mineral depositions highlighted substantial augmentation (P < 0.001) in the amount of Al, Fe, Mn, Si and V. The lungs of starling, owl, and pigeon were severely intoxicated (P < 0.001) with increased amount of Al, Fe, K, Mn and Si producing pulmonary lesions of congestion, edema, pneumonitis and mineral debris depositions. Liver samples revealed that the sampled animals were laden with Cl, Fe, Mg, Mn and V with histopathological profound degenerative changes and hepatic necrosis. Kidney sections presented severe tubular degenerative and necrotic changes that may be attributed to increased amounts of Cl and Fe. These current findings implied that the environmental/elemental toxicants and the accompanying lesions that were discerned in the organs/tissues of sampled birds may as well be afflicting people living within the polluted area. Further assessment to more conclusively demonstrate correlations of current findings to those of the populace within the area is encouraged.

In-vitro methods for testing dermal absorption and penetration of toxic gases.

This technical note provides details of an experimental technique for in-vitro skin studies with atmospheric chemical challenge. There appear to be major evidence gaps in relation to dermal exposure of gases. We describe a modification of standard OECD protocols for an atmospheric delivery system which can be used to understand interaction of toxic gases and the skin. The system can be used to examine the mechanisms by which skin uptake occurs. Auxiliary components which allow for parameter variation such as temperature and relative humidity are also described. Methodology presented in this technical note uses examples of gas challenges (ammonia, chlorine) to illustrate its application to gases of differing physicochemical properties. This adapted protocol can be applied in the context of HAZMAT scenarios involving atmospheric toxic chemical release and dermal absorption potential under variable exposure conditions.

Translocation of 125I, 75Se and 36Cl to wheat edible parts following wet foliar contamination under field conditions.

Apart from radiocaesium and radiostrontium, there have been few studies on the foliar transfer of radionuclides in plants. Consequently, specific translocation factor (ftr) values for (129)I, (79)Se and (36)Cl are still missing from the IAEA reference databases. The translocation of short - lived isotopes, (125)I and (75)Se, and of (36)Cl to wheat grain were measured under field conditions following acute and chronic wet foliar contamination at various plant growth stages in the absence of leaching caused by rain. The translocation factors ranged from 0.02% to 1.1% for (125)I (a value similar to Sr), from 0.1% to 16.5% for (75)Se, and from 1% to 14.9% for (36)Cl. Both (36)Cl and (75)Se were as mobile as Cs. The phenomenological analysis showed that each element displayed a specific behavior. Iodide showed the lowest apparent mobility because of its preferential fixation in or on the leaves and a significant amount probably volatilized. Selenite internal transfer was significant and possibly utilized the sulphur metabolic pathway. However bio - methylation of selenite may have led to increased volatilization. Chloride was very mobile and quickly diffused throughout the plant. In addition, the analysis underlined the importance of plant growth responses to annual variations in weather conditions that can affect open field experiments because plant growth stage played a major role in ftr values dispersion. The chronic contamination results suggested that a series of acute contamination events had an additive effect on translocated elements. The highest translocation value obtained for an acute contamination event was shown to be a good conservative assessment of chronic contamination if data on chronic contamination translocation are lacking. The absence of rain leaching during the experiment meant that this investigation avoided potential radionuclide transfer by the roots, which also meant that radionuclide retention on or in the leaves was maximized. This study was therefore able to obtain accurate translocation factors, which are probably among the highest that could be recorded.

Heated indoor swimming pools, infants, and the pathogenesis of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a neurogenic hypothesis.

BACKGROUND: In a case-control study a statistically significant association was recorded between the introduction of infants to heated indoor swimming pools and the development of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). In this paper, a neurogenic hypothesis is formulated to explain how toxins produced by chlorine in such pools may act deleteriously on the infant's immature central nervous system, comprising brain and spinal cord, to produce the deformity of AIS. PRESENTATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS: Through vulnerability of the developing central nervous system to circulating toxins, and because of delayed epigenetic effects, the trunk deformity of AIS does not become evident until adolescence. In mature healthy swimmers using such pools, the circulating neurotoxins detected are chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. Cyanogen chloride and dichloroacetonitrile have also been detected. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS: In infants, the putative portals of entry to the blood could be dermal, oral, or respiratory; and entry of such circulating small molecules to the brain are via the blood-brain barrier, blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and circumventricular organs. Barrier mechanisms of the developing brain differ from those of adult brain and have been linked to brain development. During the first 6 months of life cerebrospinal fluid contains higher concentrations of specific proteins relative to plasma, attributed to mechanisms continued from fetal brain development rather than immaturity. IMPLICATIONS OF THE HYPOTHESIS: The hypothesis can be tested. If confirmed, there is potential to prevent some children from developing AIS.

Elucidating mechanisms of chlorine toxicity: reaction kinetics, thermodynamics, and physiological implications.

Industrial and transport accidents, accidental releases during recreational swimming pool water treatment, household accidents due to mixing bleach with acidic cleaners, and, in recent years, usage of chlorine during war and in acts of terror, all contribute to the general and elevated state of alert with regard to chlorine gas. We here describe chemical and physical properties of Cl(2) that are relevant to its chemical reactivity with biological molecules, including water-soluble small-molecular-weight antioxidants, amino acid residues in proteins, and amino-phospholipids such as phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine that are present in the lining fluid layers covering the airways and alveolar spaces. We further conduct a Cl(2) penetration analysis to assess how far Cl(2) can penetrate the surface of the lung before it reacts with water or biological substrate molecules. Our results strongly suggest that Cl(2) will predominantly react directly with biological molecules in the lung epithelial lining fluid, such as low-molecular-weight antioxidants, and that the hydrolysis of Cl(2) to HOCl (and HCl) can be important only when these biological molecules have been depleted by direct chemical reaction with Cl(2). The results from this theoretical analysis are then used for the assessment of the potential benefits of adjuvant antioxidant therapy in the mitigation of lung injury due to inhalation of Cl(2) and are compared with recent experimental results.

Theoretical considerations and modeling of chemical inactivation of microorganisms: inactivation of Giardia Cysts by free chlorine.

Chemical inactivation of microorganisms is a common process widely employed in many fields such as in treatment of water, preservation in food industry and antimicrobial treatments in healthcare. For economy of applications and efficiency of treatment establishment the minimum dosage of breakpoint in the chemical application becomes essential. Even though experimental investigations have been extensive, theoretical understanding of such processes are demanding. Commonly employed theoretical analyses for the inactivation of microorganisms and depletion of chemicals include kinetics expressing the rates of depletion of chemical and microorganisms. The terms chemical demand (x) and specific disinfectant demand (alpha) are often used in theoretical modeling of inactivation. The value of specific disinfectant demand (alpha) has always been assumed to be a constant in these models. Intracellular concentration built up within the cells of the microorganisms during inactivation could lead to possible weakening effects of microorganisms thereby requiring lower doses as disinfection proceeds makes the assumption of constant alpha inaccurate. Model equations are formulated based on these observations co-relating the parameters alpha and x with a progressive inactivation (N/N(0)). The chemical concentration (C) is also presented in terms of the inactivation time (t) and the survival ratio (N/N(0)) for given pH and temperature conditions. The model is examined using experimentally verified Ct data of Giardia Cysts/chlorine system. The respective values of x for different survival ratios were evaluated from the data using MatLab software. Proposed model correlating for the disinfectant demand (x) with the survival ratio (N/N(0)) fits satisfactorily with those evaluated from data. The rate constants for different pH and temperature conditions are evaluated which showed compatibility with the Arrhenius model. The dependence of frequency factors with pH indicated compatibility with accepted models. The Ct values regenerated with the kinetic data shows a very accurate fit with published data.

Synthesis and biodistribution of 34mCl-labeled 2-chloro-2-deoxy-d-glucose: a major impurity in [18F]FDG injection.

No-carrier-added 2-[(34m)Cl]chloro-2-deoxy-d-glucose ([(34m)Cl]ClDG) was prepared via nucleophilic displacement reaction of 1, 3, 4, 6-tetra-O-acetyl-2-trifluoromethansulfonyl mannose with K[(34m)Cl]Cl/kryptofix 222 complex using (34m)Cl(-) produced via the (nat)S(alpha, 2n) nuclear reactions. The synthesis time from enrichment of [(34m)Cl]Cl(-) was approximately 45min and the radiochemical yield was 79.6+/-6.7% (n=3) with decay correction. Animal PET studies showed that the behavior of [(34m)Cl]ClDG was quite different from that of [(18)F]FDG. [(34m)Cl]ClDG did not accumulate in any organ and was excreted as [(34m)Cl]ClDG.

Enteric oxalate secretion is not directly mediated by the human CFTR chloride channel.

The secretion of the oxalate anion by intestinal epithelia is a functionally significant component of oxalate homeostasis and hence a relevant factor in the etiology and management of calcium oxalate urolithiasis. To test the hypothesis that human cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (hCFTR) can directly mediate the efflux of the oxalate anion, we compared cAMP-stimulated 36Cl-, 14C-oxalate, and 35SO(4)2- efflux from Xenopus oocytes expressing hCFTR with water-injected control oocytes. hCFTR-expressing oocytes exhibited a large, reversible cAMP-dependent increase in whole cell conductance measured using a two-electrode voltage clamp and a 13-fold increase in rate of cAMP-stimulated 36Cl- efflux. In contrast, the rate constants of oxalate and sulfate efflux were low and unaffected by cAMP in either control or hCFTR-expressing oocytes. We conclude that the human CFTR gene product does not directly mediate oxalate efflux in secretory epithelia and hence is not directly involved in oxalate homeostasis in humans.

Transfer of Cl from herbage into tissues and milk products of dairy cattle and pigs.

Cl-36 is an important component of nuclear waste. The concentrations of stable chlorine (Cl) in pig and cow tissues were measured to provide information which can be used to parameterize models of (36)Cl transfer into agricultural animals. The concentration of stable Cl in cows' milk was 1.0 +/- 0.2 g L(-1), in cow muscle it was 0.7 +/- 0.2 g kg(-1) wet mass (wm) and in pig muscle 0.4 +/- 0.1 g kg(-1) wm. The concentration of stable Cl in cow and pig liver was 0.9 +/- 0.3 g kg(-1) wm, which was about two-fold higher than that in the kidney and lung. Due to homeostatic control, stable Cl concentrations in animal tissues are not related to the amount ingested daily in herbage at intake rates in the normal physiological range of up to 188 g day(-1) for cows and up to 40 g day(-1) for pigs. Therefore, the commonly used transfer coefficient is not suitable for use in quantifying the transfer of (36)Cl to milk and meat. Since the metabolism of stable Cl and (36)Cl in an animal's body is identical, the average equilibrium ratios of (36)Cl to stable Cl in the daily ration ((36)Cl (g kg(-1))/Cl (g kg(-1))) and animal tissues will be the same. We therefore conclude that the average equilibrium Cl isotopic ratio in the dietary daily intake should be used to predict the contamination of meat and milk with (36)Cl.

Pharmacokinetics of ruminally dosed sodium [36Cl]chlorate in beef cattle.

The recently recognized potential of sodium chlorate as a possible preharvest food safety tool for pathogen reduction in meat animals has spurred interest in the pharmacokinetics of intraruminally dosed chlorate. Six Loala cattle were assigned (one heifer and one steer per treatment) to one of three intraruminal doses of radiolabeled sodium [36Cl]chlorate (21, 42, or 63 mg/kg body weight) administered in four equal aliquots over a 24-h period. Blood and serum were collected (29 samples in 48 h). Total radioactive residues were measured and the radioactive moieties were speciated. Chlorate appeared rapidly in blood and serum after dosing. For animals administered a dose of 42 or 63 mg/kg, the half-life of absorption was estimated at 0.6-0.9 h. Serum chlorate concentrations progressively increased with aliquot administration until peaking at 6-21 parts per million at 26 h. Between aliquot administrations, serum chlorate levels typically peaked in 3.5 h or less. The half-life of chlorate elimination ranged between 6.9 and 11 h, depending on the dose. Ultimately, absorption of chlorate removes it from its desired site of action, the lower gastrointestinal tract, thereby reducing its efficacy. Further research is needed to develop a chlorate formulation that will allow passage to the lower gastrointestinal tract.

Chlorination byproducts, their toxicodynamics and removal from drinking water.

No doubt that chlorination has been successfully used for the control of water borne infections diseases for more than a century. However identification of chlorination byproducts (CBPs) and incidences of potential health hazards created a major issue on the balancing of the toxicodynamics of the chemical species and risk from pathogenic microbes in the supply of drinking water. There have been epidemiological evidences of close relationship between its exposure and adverse outcomes particularly the cancers of vital organs in human beings. Halogenated trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) are two major classes of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) commonly found in waters disinfected with chlorine. The total concentration of trihalomethanes and the formation of individual THM species in chlorinated water strongly depend on the composition of the raw water, on operational parameters and on the occurrence of residual chlorine in the distribution system. Attempts have been made to develop predictive models to establish the production and kinetics of THM formations. These models may be useful for operational purposes during water treatment and water quality management. It is also suggested to explore some biomarkers for determination of DBP production. Various methods have been suggested which include adsorption on activated carbons, coagulation with polymer, alum, lime or iron, sulfates, ion exchange and membrane process for the removal of DBPs. Thus in order to reduce the public health risk from these toxic compounds regulation must be inforced for the implementation of guideline values to lower the allowable concentrations or exposure.

Effect of sodium [36Cl]chlorate dose on total radioactive residues and residues of parent chlorate in growing swine.

An experimental chlorate-based product has been shown to be efficacious in eliminating economically important, Gram-negative human pathogens in the gastrointestinal tracts of food animals. Prior to the commercial marketing of such a product, the magnitude and chemical nature of residues remaining in edible tissues must be determined. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the tissue distribution and elimination of sodium [36Cl]chlorate in orally dosed swine. Three sets of pigs, each consisting of a barrow and a gilt, were orally dosed with a total of 20, 40, or 60 mg of sodium [36Cl]chlorate per kg body weight via the drinking water. Urine and feces were collected throughout the 30 h study. Twenty-four hours after the last exposure to [36Cl]chlorate, each pig was harvested and both edible and inedible tissues were collected. Urine and tissue samples were analyzed for total radioactive residues and for chlorate metabolites. Elimination of radioactivity in urine averaged 81.6, 83.7, and 83.9% of the total dose for the low, medium, and high doses, respectively. Fecal elimination of radioactivity averaged 1.1% of the dosed radiochlorine across all doses. Parent chlorate always represented greater than 97.4% of the urinary radiochlorine with the remaining radiochlorine being excreted as chloride ion. Chlorate represented 39-77% of fecal radioactivity, depending upon dose. Chlorate concentrations in edible tissues ranged from 0.01 to 0.49 ppm, with residues in liver and skeletal muscle generally lower than those in kidney and adipose tissue. Chlorate residues were concentrated in thyroid tissues (7.7-25.4 ppm) relative to edible tissues. No evidence for the presence of chlorite was observed in excreta or in tissues. Results of this study suggest that further development of chlorate as a preharvest food safety tool in swine merits consideration.

Comparison of the chlorine inactivation of Yersinia enterocolitica in chlorine demand and demand-free systems.

Inactivation of Yersinia enterocolitica by chlorine (0.6 to 20 ppm) was investigated in distilled water and in tryptic soy broth (TSB, 0.015%) at different temperatures (4, 20, and 40 degrees C). In distilled water, chlorine inactivation of Y. enterocolitica was enhanced by increasing the temperature from 4 to 20 degrees C, and survival curves were described by a model that assumed first-order kinetics followed by tailing in which the microbial concentration remained constant. The presence of TSB increased chlorine resistance of Y. enterocolitica, and survival curves were concave downward. These survival curves were described by a model based on the Weibull distribution. Chlorine decay in distilled water was independent of temperature and of the initial concentration of available chlorine and was modeled by first-order reaction kinetics. Chlorine decay in TSB was independent of the initial chlorine concentration but depended on the treatment temperature and was modeled by the addition of two first-order decay equations. The increased resistance of Y. enterocolitica to chlorine in TSB was not due only to the chlorine demand by the TSB components. These components protected Y. enterocolitica cells from the antimicrobial effect of chlorine.

Membrane damage and microbial inactivation by chlorine in the absence and presence of a chlorine-demanding substrate.

The relationship between cell inactivation and membrane damage was studied in two gram-positive organisms, Listeria monocytogenes and Bacillus subtilis, and two gram-negative organisms, Yersinia enterocolitica and Escherichia coli, exposed to chlorine in the absence and presence of 150 ppm of organic matter (Trypticase soy broth). L. monocytogenes and B. subtilis were more resistant to chlorine in distilled water. The addition of small amounts of organic matter to the chlorination medium drastically increased the resistance of both types of microorganisms, but this effect was more marked in Y. enterocolitica and E. coli. In addition, the survival curves for these microorganisms in the presence of organic matter had a prolonged shoulder. Sublethal injury was not detected under most experimental conditions, and only gram-positive cells treated in distilled water showed a relevant degree of injury. The exposure of bacterial cells to chlorine in distilled water caused extensive permeabilization of the cytoplasmic membrane, but the concentrations required were much higher than those needed to inactivate cells. Therefore, there was no relationship between the occurrence of membrane permeabilization and cell death. The addition of organic matter to the treatment medium stabilized the cytoplasmic membrane against permeabilization in both the gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria investigated. Exposure of E. coli cells to the outer membrane-permeabilizing agent EDTA increased their sensitivity to chlorine and caused the shoulders in the survival curves to disappear. Based on these observations, we propose that bacterial envelopes could play a role in cell inactivation by modulating the access of chlorine to the key targets within the cell.

Chloride conductance of CFTR facilitates basal Cl-/HCO3- exchange in the villous epithelium of intact murine duodenum.

Villi of the proximal duodenum are situated for direct exposure to gastric acid chyme. However, little is known about active bicarbonate secretion across villi that maintains the protective alkaline mucus barrier, a process that may be compromised in cystic fibrosis (CF), i.e., in the absence of a functional CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) anion channel. We investigated Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange activity across the apical membrane of epithelial cells located at the midregion of villi in intact duodenal mucosa from wild-type (WT) and CF mice using the pH-sensitive dye BCECF. Under basal conditions, the Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange rate was reduced by approximately 35% in CF compared with WT villous epithelium. Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange in WT and CF villi responded similarly to inhibitors of anion exchange, and membrane depolarization enhanced rates of Cl(-)(out)/HCO(3)(-)(in) exchange in both epithelia. In anion substitution studies, anion(in)/HCO(3)(-)(out) exchange rates were greater in WT epithelium using Cl(-) or NO(3)(-), but decreased to the level of the CF epithelium using the CFTR-impermeant anion, SO(4)(2-). Similarly, treatment of WT epithelium with the CFTR-selective blocker glybenclamide decreased the Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange rate to the level of CF epithelium. The mRNA expression of Slc26a3 (downregulated in adenoma) and Slc26a6 (putative anion exchanger-1) was similar between WT and CF duodena. From these studies of murine duodenum, we conclude 1) characteristics of Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange in the villous epithelium are most consistent with Slc26a6 activity, and 2) Cl(-) channel activity of CFTR facilitates apical membrane Cl(-)(in)/HCO(3)(-)(out) exchange by providing a Cl(-) "leak" under basal conditions.

Role of short-chain fatty acids in colonic HCO(3) secretion.

Luminal isobutyrate, a relatively poor metabolized short-chain fatty acid (SCFA), induces HCO(3) secretion via a Cl-independent, DIDS-insensitive, carrier-mediated process as well as inhibiting both Cl-dependent and cAMP-induced HCO(3) secretion. The mechanism(s) responsible for these processes have not been well characterized. HCO(3) secretion was measured in isolated colonic mucosa mounted in Lucite chambers using pH stat technique and during microperfusion of isolated colonic crypts. (14)C-labeled butyrate, (14)C-labeled isobutyrate, and (36)Cl uptake were also determined by apical membrane vesicles (AMV) isolated from surface and/or crypt cells. Butyrate stimulation of Cl-independent, DIDS-insensitive 5-nitro-3-(3-phenylpropyl-amino)benzoic acid-insensitive HCO(3) secretion is greater than that by isobutyrate, suggesting that both SCFA transport and metabolism are critical for HCO(3) secretion. Both lumen and serosal 25 mM butyrate inhibit cAMP-induced HCO(3) secretion to a comparable degree (98 vs. 90%). In contrast, Cl-dependent HCO(3) secretion is downregulated by lumen 25 mM butyrate considerably more than by serosal butyrate (98 vs. 37%). Butyrate did not induce HCO(3) secretion in isolated microperfused crypts, whereas an outward-directed HCO(3) gradient-driven induced (14)C-butyrate uptake by surface but not crypt cell AMV. Both (36)Cl/HCO(3) exchange and potential-dependent (36)Cl movement in AMV were inhibited by 96-98% by 20 mM butyrate. We conclude that 1) SCFA-dependent HCO(3) secretion is the result of SCFA transport across the apical membrane via a SCFA/HCO(3) exchange more than intracellular SCFA metabolism; 2) SCFA-dependent HCO(3) secretion is most likely a result of an apical membrane SCFA/HCO(3) exchange in surface epithelial cells; 3) SCFA downregulates Cl-dependent and cAMP-induced HCO(3) secretion secondary to SCFA inhibition of apical membrane Cl/HCO(3) exchange and anion channel activity, respectively.

Physiological basis for large differences in resistance to nitrite among freshwater and freshwater-acclimated euryhaline fishes.

Uptake of environmental NO2- by most freshwater fishes occurs at the gills where NO2- is actively transported into the blood by the Cl- uptake pathway. Some freshwater fishes do not concentrate NO2- in their plasma, regardless of environmental NO2- exposure and exhibit a high degree of resistance to NO2-. Recent studies indicate that freshwater-adapted killifish (Fundulidae: Fundulus heteroclitus) and European eel (Anguillidae: Anguilla anguilla) have no or minimal Cl- uptake activity at the gills relative to most freshwater fishes; rather, Cl- requirements are met in other ways (probably dietary). We hypothesized that different rates of Cl- uptake by the gill may explain the observed differences in NO2- uptake and consequent toxicity among freshwater fishes. Cl- influx rates of channel catfish (Ictaluridae: Ictalurus punctatus), a species that concentrates NO2- in the plasma and is sensitive to NO2-, and bluegill (Centrarchidae: Lepomis macrochirus), a species that does not concentrate NO2- in the plasma and is resistant to NO2-, were determined over a range of environmental Cl- concentrations. Channel catfish actively transported chloride into the plasma (Km = 155.6+/-101.2 micromol/L Cl-; Jmax = 414.9+/-51.4 nmol/g/h; +/-SEM). In contrast, bluegill exhibited no observable Cl- uptake. We placed our results and previously reported results in a phylogenetic context and concluded that differences in Cl- uptake mechanisms among groups of freshwater fishes may explain, in large part, the wide range of sensitivity to environmental NO2-. NO2- uptake determinations may also prove to be an easy screening method when studying the phylogenetic distribution and nature of Cl- uptake mechanisms in the gills of fishes.

Soil-to-plant halogens transfer studies 2. Root uptake of radiochlorine by plants.

Long-term field experiments have been carried out in the Chernobyl exclusion zone in order to determine the parameters governing radiochlorine (36Cl) transfer to plants from four types of soil, namely, podzoluvisol, greyzem, and typical and meadow chernozem. Radiochlorine concentration ratios (CR) in radish roots (15+/-10), lettuce leaves (30+/-15), bean pods (15+/-11) and wheat seed (23+/-11) and straw (210+/-110) for fresh weight of plants were obtained. These values correlate well with stable chlorine values for the same plants. One year after injection, 36Cl reached a quasi-equilibrium with stable chlorine in the agricultural soils and its behavior in the soil-plant system mimicked the behavior of stable chlorine (this behavior was determined by soil moisture transport in the investigated soils). In the absence of intensive vertical migration, more than half of 36Cl activity in arable layer of soil passes into the radish, lettuce and the aboveground parts of wheat during a single vegetation period.

Relationship between inactivation kinetics of a Listeria monocytogenes suspension by chlorine and its chlorine demand.

AIMS: Chlorine demand by Listeria monocytogenes cells and inactivation of L. monocytogenes by chlorine (0.6-1.0 mg l(-1)) at different temperatures (4, 20 and 30 degrees C) have been investigated in a batch reactor. METHODS AND RESULTS: Chlorine demand depended on the microbial concentration and was independent on the initial chlorine concentration and temperature. Chlorine decay was modelled by the addition of two first-order decay equations. Inactivation of L. monocytogenes by chlorine depended on the initial microbial concentration, initial chlorine concentration and temperature. A mathematical model based on a biphasic inactivation properly described survival curves of L. monocytogenes and a tertiary model was developed that satisfactorily predicted the inactivation of L. monocytogenes by different concentrations of initial chlorine at different temperatures. CONCLUSIONS: Both available chlorine decay and inactivation of L. monocytogenes by chlorine were biphasic and can be modelled by a two-term exponential model. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The biphasic nature of survival curves of L. monocytogenes did not reflect the effect of a change of available chlorine concentration during the treatment. The microbial inactivation was caused by successive reactions that occur after the consumption of the chlorine by the bacterial cell components.